A Communicative Approach to Teaching Arabic in Academia
Introduction
The goal of any successful approach to foreign language teaching is to enable the second language learner to “acquire” an overall competency in the target language. This aim requires a curriculum that integrates equally the five skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing and culture. To achieve optimal results, a well-balanced program of instruction must also be presented in a non-threatening environment that builds on a relaxed classroom atmosphere and a relationship of trust between the students and their instructor.
According to Krashen, students acquire language when they are able to understand and decode messages through listening and reading and when they receive an adequate amount of “comprehensible input.”[1] Input that is interesting, relevant and challenging but not overwhelming will prepare students to survive in an authentic environment and utilize the real world as well as the classroom for their individual progress.[2]
Since the primary function of language is communication, the target language should be the main medium of communication in the classroom and should result in maximum interaction with the students but not to the point where overall comprehension is impaired, which can lead to frustration and tension.
Some Reasons for Studying a Foreign Language Today
The acquisition of other languages as a means of communication, survival, and trade has always occurred. Yet as the needs of certain societies changed, foreign language acquisition became desirable but not critical. Consequently, the formal study of foreign languages (classroom based) is relatively a recent phenomena and poses its own set of challenges.[3] Today, people study languages for a variety of reasons[4] such as:
Language should not be taught in a vacuum, and consequently, I continuously try to introduce it within its proper cultural context. It is important for the instructor to have a good understanding of why his students have chosen to study the target language. In this way, he can supplement the curriculum to satisfy the interests of his students, enhancing the learning process and resulting in a positive and enjoyable learning experience.
A Brief History of Foreign Language Teaching Methodologies and Approaches
The history of foreign language teaching has been influenced by changing psychological and socio-cultural movements and theories. As theories changed, so did methods of teaching foreign languages.[7]
Earlier methods of foreign language instruction (the grammar-translation method, the audio-lingual method, and the cognitive code method) represented a school of thought that remained primarily occupied with the form rather than the content of the message delivered to the learner, putting “accuracy before fluency,” and consequently, the results achieved remained short of producing proficient students. Thus, the push towards a new more effective approach became necessary.[8]
In the late 1980’s, a new school of thought began to gain momentum. There was a clear shift towards a communicative approach that placed “fluency before accuracy.” This approach, as John Underwood points out, was really not a single method but several all grouped together under the generic term “communicative language teaching.” On the one hand, this movement was due to the linguistic theories of Noam Chomsky and the pioneering research of second language acquisition proponents. On the other hand, it was simply the result of clear dissatisfaction with earlier approaches.[9] Chomsky’s approach remained confined to achieving linguistic and grammatical competence, focusing more on the product rather than on the process. Then came a host of linguists notable among them Hymes, Hallyday, Rivers and Savignon who took the research a step further towards communicative competence. Others such as Lozanov, Asher, and Curran developed their own communicative approaches, and although each approach had merit, yet each was also lacking in flexibility when used exclusively in the classroom.[10]
Perhaps the most comprehensive approach to foreign language instruction is that of Stephen Krashen coupled with Tracy Terrell and is called the “Natural Approach”. While not entirely new, Krashen’s approach has revolutionized the process of foreign language teaching and is easily adaptable to the classroom setting and to students of all ages. In a classroom utilizing the Natural Approach, the teacher emerges as a warm, sympathetic, bilingual coach who can provide input and make it comprehensible in a low anxiety atmosphere conducive to learning. This is my goal.[11]
Throughout my twenty-four years of experience in teaching Arabic to adult non-natives, I have applied several different approaches and have arrived at a teaching style that blends the successful elements of previous approaches into my own personal communicative method. However, in Krashen’s “Natural Approach,” I see the most affinity with and the most validation of my own personal style. Consequently, I am a strong proponent of the “Natural Approach” even though I continue to adjust and modify my style based on new personal experiences and further research.
The Natural Approach
The Natural Approach can be used to help beginners efficiently advance to the intermediate level and become better prepared to face real life situations in a functional setting. The Natural Approach is simple to use and “can be easily adapted to a variety of situations.” It can also be conveniently “modified to deal with different types of students” and “need not be adopted in whole” but can be applied in parts within a regular teaching program. The Natural Approach also incorporates other communicative methods like Lozanov’s Suggestopedia, Asher’s Total Physical Response (TPR), Curran’s Community Language Learning, and the Silent Way, etc.[12]
If we accept the premise that the main purpose of studying a foreign language is to be able to communicate and that throughout history man has learned to use languages other than his native tongue for communicating with speakers of other language groups and cultures before any use of formal grammar studies was made available, it becomes evident that the basic tenets of the Natural Approach make sense and that the teaching of grammatical rules has a significantly different emphasis.[13] I am not presenting an argument against the teaching of grammar, but I am stating that in a communicative approach, I agree with Krashen that grammar should be put in its “proper place” instead of being the focal point of the teaching hour.[14] Precious class time should be utilized to teach language, not to teach about language. To use a simple analogy, students should learn how to drive a car; they don’t need to have an elaborate understanding of how the car’s engine works (unless of course, they intend to become mechanics or to specialize in the reading of Classical texts). Without proper grammar, students cannot become proficient learners, but the instructor’s goal should remain focused on the content, the message and not the form or the rules of morphology and syntax. As Krashen explains, “the conscious understanding of grammar” is not necessarily “a prerequisite to acquiring communicative competence.”[15] “Language learning is ‘knowing the rules,’ having a conscious knowledge about grammar.”[16] Acquisition, on the other hand, is an unconscious process which takes place when students “understand messages in the target language” through the proper introduction of “comprehensible input.” This input should be interesting, relevant, and somewhat challenging. It does not necessarily have to be grammatically sequenced.[17]
For acquisition to take place, students must be receptive or to use Krashen’s terminology, the “affective filter” should be at its lowest possible level. This can be achieved by eliminating anxiety and stress, motivating and encouraging students, building self-confidence and esteem, not forcing speaking before individual students are ready, and tolerating errors without the rush to correct every utterance especially in the early stages. Consequently, the best materials suitable for the classroom will be those that supply comprehensible input, are interesting and relevant, do not force overuse of grammar, and keep the student off the defensive.[18]
The Role of the Instructor in a Communicative Setting
Gone are the days of the teacher as a drill sergeant, who has the students memorize meaningless pattern drills like a parrot. Today the language instructor is expected to be a coach, a guide, a friend, and a facilitator who establishes connections, builds bridges and instills self-confidence in each student. The teacher should be a role model, a counselor, and a partner in the learning process. As the approaches to language teaching have changed, so has the concept and the role of the teacher[19] who now strives to:
Teaching is an interactive process. Both the teacher and the student have to be willing to give and receive and to grow together. The student also has a responsibility to:
“A proficiency-based curriculum requires establishing goals in terms of skills and making a hierarchy of the skills in terms offunctions.”[20] Dealing with adolescent learners in a college setting and adopting a process of “limited immersion” requires the prioritization of skills and must address the limitations of time and student availability for language instruction. This problem is addressed differently in “immersion” programs such as The Defense Language Institute’s, CASA, FSI’s, and Middlebury’s, to name a few. The classroom, in spite of all of its limitations and confinement, remains a sort of substitute for the target country and the instructor remains the main native speaker available to provide comprehensible input.
In order to expand the students’ experience, the instructor must expose his students to a host of real life events and activities. The classroom should be filled with “realia” so when the student enters, he feels that he is temporarily stepping out of his daily world and entering a new and exciting cultural experience. I often play traditional Arabic background music to accustom students to the sounds they will hear in the Middle East. The music also contributes to creating a relaxed atmosphere and lowers the “affective filter” so that students are more receptive to learning. At times, the classroom moves to a Middle Eastern restaurant (New York City is especially endowed with many) so the students can enjoy the food and aromas typical in the Middle East. Students learn to acquire a taste for Middle Eastern delicacies and have the opportunity to converse in Arabic with native restaurant owners. Students also learn to order and pay for their food as they would in a typical restaurant in the Middle East. In addition, the reading of Arabic newspapers is a daily classroom activity. The introduction of movies, video clips, live radio broadcasts, and native guest speakers further serves to simulate a real world experience. The classroom should be a microcosm of real life, and it is up to the instructor to constantly find ways to enhance the students’ real world experience. In this way, the classroom becomes a catalyst, aiding in the acquisition of the five language skills.
The “real life” classroom experience can be further enhanced through the well-integrated use of technology. The most successful language schools have “smart classrooms” which enable the students to immerse themselves in a totally simulated environment. As the students interact with authentic dialogue and texts, the instructor serves as a facilitator and coach. Interactive video-disk technology (used, for example, at the Defense Language Institute) enables students to listen, speak, read, write and enjoy a cultural experience all at the same time. Satellite technology (SCOLA) now enables us to receive live television broadcasts from the Middle East. The world is more interconnected than ever, and the opportunities to be exposed to other societies have been greatly increased. Of course, the internet also significantly enhances our experiences as we can communicate with native speakers in the Middle East and can also be exposed to a multitude of media in the target language. I introduce my students to natives via the internet so that they can communicate with them regularly.
The language lab, if used properly, is another vehicle that can be a vital extension of the classroom where students can go on their own time and enhance their language skills by gaining access to tapes, videos, computers and the internet. In addition, I assign tape cassette homework activities which the student can do in the comfort of his own room. Furthermore, listening passages, vocabulary, and numerous exercises from the current textbook are also available via e-learning on the internet.
Distance learning through video conferencing is yet another means of using technology to effectively teach Arabic to students who are located on remote campuses that do not have a formal Arabic program. This technology enables an instructor to teach two or more campuses simultaneously with students instantly receiving the same instruction. This was one way I was able to teach Arabic to students who were located on two different SUNY campuses. For the most part, however, distance learning is not yet being used effectively in traditional brick and mortar universities. This is due to lack of facilities, funding or training on the part of instructors. However, with e-learning becoming increasingly popular, this helps to bridge the gap especially as collaborative e-learning courses are developed and deployed.
The Textbook vs Authentic Material
Most academic Arabic programs have relied on an established textbook as a standard for setting up the curriculum, thus allowing the textbook, and in particular its grammatical features, to become the heart of the syllabus. On the other hand, proficiency-based instruction is not sequenced according to a preset textbook. Its goal is to prepare students for real life situations and to prompt them through a series of language activities to function in the target country alongside native speakers, educated and otherwise. Proficiency relies on an evolving course syllabus which is not fixed nor dependent upon a textbook. Hence, the instructor needs to perpetually select and prepare materials based on situations, current events and the evolving level and interest of the class.[21]
Elementary and even intermediate students are more comfortable with a pre-designed curriculum utilizing a well-selected textbook. Such a textbook should form the basic outline for the course and supply continuity and structure. It is the instructor’s responsibility to enrich and supplement the book with outside materials that enhance instruction and make the students’ exposure to the language richer and more meaningful. However, as the students progress towards proficiency and build more confidence, a less rigid structure should be adopted especially in more advanced levels where both teacher and students can partake in designing the features of a more fluid and evolving curriculum based entirely on proficiency and communicative guidelines. In this case, a textbook is no longer required and the emphasis should be totally on authentic texts.
The use of authentic material in language instruction is imperative and should be utilized whenever possible and at the outset of instruction. In this way, students will become accustomed to actual conversations and to genuine texts. However, it is critical that the instructor carefully select the appropriate material, slightly modify it if necessary, and incorporate it into the program of instruction at the appropriate level. Introducing students to controlled and guided activities such as short segments of recorded broadcasts (commercials, news headlines, brief announcements and songs, and live interviews with native speakers on familiar or personal topics) seem best for students at the lower proficiency level, while intermediate and advanced classes will be more apt to handle more difficult and longer segments on a variety of topics. Of course, today with the tremendous amount of information that can be downloaded and printed from the internet, the job of selecting suitable material has been made easier. In addition, the internet allows students to directly access any information from target web sites that have been pre-selected by the instructor. To facilitate my students access to the tremendous wealth of materials on the internet, I have created a personal web site for my students which includes a wide variety of links about the Middle East where they can, among other things, read the daily and weekly newspapers and magazines, listen to live news broadcasts and music, download a dictionary and search for any book of their choice. The possibilities today are unlimited, and if we cannot take our students to the target country, we can certainly try to bring a genuine sample and flavor of the latter to the classroom through mediums that were unavailable a decade or so ago.
The Importance of Small Group Activity
In any activity performed in the classroom, it is important that the instructor have a precise purpose and well-prepared material. The students should receive clear instructions as to what they are supposed to do and what is expected of them.
“An interactive approach requires a high degree of indirect leadership and emotional maturity” on the part of the teacher. Whatever increases student participation is essential to successful language learning. The students’ interaction may be “quiet” or it may be “noisy.” The teacher’s tolerance for some movement and noise as well as his willingness to give up territory and share the floor with the students are important factors to the success of group work. Such are “classes where real learning is taking place, where students are comprehending, communicating, creating language that is meaningful in an atmosphere of trust and confidence” that enhances the student’s self image, respect and excitement.[22]
It is also important that interaction take place not only between teacher and learner, but also among learners themselves. This is known as “interlanguage.”[23] During small group activities, the instructor acts only as a facilitator attending to the needs of the students by going around and listening to the interactional participation, joining in only if invited to do so. While doing this, the instructor must refrain from direct corrections and from interrupting the students to point out grammatical errors. It is advisable to take notes of such errors and discuss them with the class after the activity is completed or during the last ten minutes of class time. Some teachers discourage "interlanguage," believing that students would be exposed to incorrect speech and learn the wrong pronunciation or grammar. I feel that this actually deprives students from invaluable opportunities. Research has shown that habit formation does not occur instantaneously and that the advantage of such practices, by far, outweigh the disadvantages. I can testify to this from personal experience.[24]
In real life, communication occurs not in a monologue but in a dialogue or in a conversational setting. Consequently, the application of small group interaction contributes to the creation of a more authentic environment and as John Lett points out is “psychologically much more conducive to the communicative use of the target language than is the typical whole-class environment. In fact, the exclusive use of whole-class instruction in our attempt to help students develop communicative proficiency can be seen to be somewhat self-defeating.”[25]
John Lett continues to explain that small group activities facilitate the use of the target language and create situations that are more “sociolinguistically realistic.” In addition, he adds that such activities create a less threatening atmosphere of positive participation and dramatically increases the amount of time each student has to practice. Small group activity can help the teacher be more available for individual learner needs and allow the student to get more personal attention. It also affords the student more opportunity for self correction and peer learning. I agree with Lett’s assumption that if students are making more mistakes during such activities, it is certainly because they are making more responses and using the language more than they would normally do in a teacher-centered class. Within small groups, each student becomes the center, the learner and the teacher. It is the instructor’s responsibility to coach and monitor every group effectively by creating the attitude that we’re all on the same team. Furthermore, such activities foster a community atmosphere.[26] My personal experience has shown that students enjoy such activities and are willing to share their knowledge and learn from each other. I make sure to tell them that they should not be competing against each other; they should only be competing against themselves.
A critical step to take after group work has occurred is for the teacher to conduct a follow up session to ensure that the work done is both complete and correct. Students should never feel that their group work was a waste of time or unimportant or less important than an instructor-led activity. The frequency of such group activities should be gradually increased as the instructor trains the students to become more independent and resourceful learners. As for the length of each activity, it should depend on the nature of the task to be performed.[27]
There are various methods to select group members. Self-selection works sometimes where individuals know each other enough and tend to group themselves with friends whom they feel comfortable working with. For some quick activities, a teacher should randomly select a group. For other activities that demand more time and a more detailed and thorough involvement, the instructor should select the groups with other considerations in mind, such as the nature of the task, personality matching, and ability level. For these activities, the instructor should combine both weak and strong students in the same group. For some activities, it might be helpful to prepare the way with a collective brainstorming session prior to grouping. Also, setting a specific time limit is always a good idea, so students know that they must complete the activity in the designated time and not resort to simply socializing.[28]
Some Strategies to Build the Five Skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Culture
In designing exercises for my students, whether for listening, reading, writing, or speaking, I always try to keep in mind the basic objective of a given activity and develop exercises accordingly. I have created and selected a large number of such exercises and activities which I have been using in my classes. All were prepared to lead to comprehension and proficiency. My students’ input and reaction to these materials is extremely critical for me. I observe how they react to and interact with each activity and always strive to improve the design and composition of my materials. I learn from their comments as much as they learn from me. No curriculum is perfect and no exercise is complete until it meets the students’ expectations, arouses their interest and takes them a step forward towards real life communication and teaches them something new.
Teaching material should be challenging. Students should be taught to tolerate ambiguity and be willing to guess and take risks. Simple pattern exercises are not comprehensive enough to prepare the learner for a genuine interaction with the natives on the streets of Beirut, Cairo or Baghdad. Given class-time limitations and the less than semi-immersion environment that a university schedule permits, it becomes imperative to expose students to as many situations and to as much vocabulary as possible.
Any successful language program should aim at the complete and balanced integration of the five skills in a relaxed and productive atmosphere where the responsibilities and roles of both the instructor and the learner are clear and well-defined. Below are some points I have learned from personal experience and some strategies I have employed to teach the five skills.
Listening
Listening is one of the most important communication skills. Successful communication requires cooperation between a good communicator and an “active” listener. Hearing does not necessarily mean listening. Students who are learning a foreign language must be taught how to listen so that they can reap the most benefit without becoming frustrated. When exposed to the target language, students need to focus and remove all distractions. They should be told that they will not necessarily understand everything they hear and that is perfectly normal. Students should listen without worrying about rules of grammar. They should try to understand the main ideas, and with time, they will also learn important details.
Listening is difficult because the receiver usually has little or no control over the flow of speech, its speed and in many cases, the subject matter involved. In a conversation, a question and answer session, or an oral interview setting, only the experienced listener will have the ability to manipulate the course of conversation and steer it in a direction suitable to his/her level of proficiency and interest. This is why it is so critical to teach beginning language learners how to become good listeners and how to feel comfortable with native discourse. This will eliminate the shock that some students may feel when exposed to the real thing.
In real life, language is usually used on the discourse and sentence level rather than on the word level, which is the reason why we should train our students from the beginning to listen to vocabulary in context and to full sentences and relatively long passages. In other words, we
should train them to “discriminate among distinctive sounds in the target language” and retain
(not necessarily memorize ) “chunks of language of different lengths” and ask them to paraphrase in their own words what they have heard. Students should also be asked to guess meanings from context and make inferences, predictions and generalizations.[29]
Listening to information passages in areas like everyday social or survival topics is important for beginners. Once students feel comfortable and can function at the survival level, more complex and longer authentic discourse should be introduced. Students should be able to ascertain the main ideas. As listening comprehension increases through the acquisition of a more varied vocabulary, students will then begin to also learn important details. At this point, students should be exposed to unedited authentic discourse in the form of radio broadcasts, TV, plays, academic lectures, and abstract topics.
“Teacher talk,” or “comprehensible input” remains one of the most valuable sources for an authentic as well as a “simulated authentic discourse” for listening material. The instructor who knows only well the students’ proficiency level can through conversations and anecdotes supply vital doses of speech that combine both authentic and pedagogical features. Such speech can be “characterized by slower, more careful articulation,” is rich with familiar vocabulary, and can still be challenging but not overwhelming. It can also be unrehearsed or pre-planned and contain false starts, hesitations, backtracking, and redundancy. To ensure comprehension, the instructor should employ restatements, paraphrasing, gestures, and punctuate the speech with questions to the students or ask them to take notes and later paraphrase.[30]
During such activities, students’ tasks should vary. They can be expected to listen for the gist, fill in graphs, apply selective listening, do dictation, take notes, paraphrase, get the main idea and some supporting details, supply an ending to a story, guess new meanings, supply an outline to a story, respond to multiple choice questions on short exchanges, answer questions about selected listening texts, identify and describe characters in a told story or respond to specific instructions in a TPR (Total Physical Response) activity. In some task-based activities like renting a room, cashing a check, going for a job interview, negotiating buying a car, it will be useful to prepare the class by a brainstorming session of what they might have to answer, ask, or expect to hear in such situations.[31]
Speaking
Proficiency in speaking is a result of good listening. Students enjoy speaking and should be encouraged to do so. The ability to speak is rewarding to most students. However, students come to class with different past experiences in the target language. While some have had previous exposure to the target language and are eager to speak, others are being introduced to the language for the first time and are shy and uncomfortable. Unfortunately, in a university setting which has a limited amount of contact time with the students, we do not have the luxury of waiting too long for students to speak, or to use Krashen’s terms, to let “language emerge.”[32] While the more-proficient students should be encouraged to speak, the other students should be given some time (approximately two weeks) to absorb enough of the language before they are expected to speak on their own. This does not mean that the shy students should not be expected to speak at all from the beginning. On the contrary, as the instructor introduces vocabulary using visual cues and modeling, all of the students should be learning new words and participating in simple pattern drills. Once the students have learned enough vocabulary and are familiar with a basic sentence structure and some key verbs, they will then be able to participate more actively in class. Beginners will initially be able to respond with yes/no answers, next with short phrases, and eventually with short sentences.
It is important to note that the instructor must stay in touch with class dynamics at all times and must continuously strive to achieve balance. The more-proficient students should not end up dominating the class while the others feel left out. This is where small group work helps tremendously. Pairing students together with different speaking abilities will help encourage the shy students to speak in a non-threatening environment, lowering the affective filter for all. This is especially important when speaking is involved. Students should never be put on the spot or embarrassed in front of the class. They should speak freely and not worry about making mistakes, and they should be constantly encouraged and rewarded for their effort. In small groups, students will also have much more opportunity to speak, ask questions, and learn from each other than in a teacher-centered classroom. The class becomes vibrant with simultaneous conversations occurring in the target language. The teacher should be walking around listening to the students speak, encouraging them but not interfering in the flow of their speech. The teacher should not be correcting the students at this point; rather, he should be taking notes which he can then share with the entire class without calling attention to one particular person. For those students who are still hesitating to speak, the instructor can meet with them one-on-one during office hours and give them the opportunity to practice with him. The instructor should laugh and help the students feel comfortable and relaxed.
There are many techniques that can be employed to increase speaking proficiency. I always tell students to listen to themselves speak because the ear has a way of helping them correct their own mistakes. If they are good listeners to themselves, to the teacher, to their peers and to the tapes and other media at their disposal, they will become good speakers. Initially, students can be asked to speak about topics that are familiar to them (like about themselves or their family). Another technique that I use with my students is I tell them that they must interview a native speaker and then share the interview orally with the rest of the class. In this way, they learn proper questioning techniques. They then learn how to describe simple events, people and things and eventually are able to narrate. As they continuously receive more “comprehensible input,” they acquire the ability to negotiate and finally are able to speak about abstract topics.
For the most part, speaking exercises should be focused on the lessons being studied. This will help create a more level playing field where everyone is exposed to the same vocabulary. Homework assignments given the night before on a particular topic will enable all students to be prepared to participate in class the next day. In addition, at the beginning of each class the instructor can take a few minutes to discuss personal topics such as what he did last night and then using small groups, give the students each an opportunity to prepare a brief sentence or two on what they did. These responses can then be shared with the entire class.
Brainstorming is a technique that is particularly useful in building speaking proficiency and one that I use frequently. Once the instructor introduces a topic (for example, the student will be participating in a job interview), he can ask all students to brainstorm on what questions might be asked during an interview and what data is required. Students should take notes during the brainstorming session, and they can then use those notes to help them during a simulated job interview session. Advanced students also benefit from this technique although they would be dealing with more complex and abstract topics. For example, they may be discussing a work of literature and preparing a critical analysis or they may be asked to participate in a debate on topics such as the women’s liberation movement in the Middle East.
In addition, most exercises used to build listening comprehension and reading comprehension as well can be tailored to enhance speaking proficiency. I also recommend teaching a flavor of colloquial Arabic dialects (Syrian, Iraqi, Egyptian, etc.) This is important because many current Arabic programs teach Modern Standard Arabic which is the language used in the Middle East by the news media and educated writers of Arabic. It is not the language used for day-to-day conversations by native speakers in the Middle East. Colloquial dialect classes should be offered to those students who are interested in acquiring language proficiency for a specific target country. In this way, students will be able to communicate at all levels when exposed to native speakers.
Reading
Reading is the process of obtaining the necessary information from a written text. Depending on our purpose and need, we apply different techniques to a particular text in order to obtain the sought after elements of information. Looking through the ad page in the daily newspaper to buy a specific type of car, for example, is certainly different from a careful reading of a letter from the IRS or studying a modern work of literature or analyzing a Medieval text.
When reading a text, both “visual and non-visual” cues are relevant to decoding it. The reader’s knowledge of the world (schemata) and of the topic and cultural background is as important as familiarity with the linguistic code.[33] As an instructor of foreign language, it is essential for me to know why my students need to read a particular foreign text and I must be familiar with the steps which they must go through to understand it in order for me to best help them achieve their goal. According to Phillips, we usually read either for information or for pleasure even though the demarcation lines between these two reasons are not necessarily rigid. It is rather the purpose behind the reading of a certain text that determines the degree and level of comprehension required. Skimming a newspaper for headlines to get a global view of today’s news is different from reading a specific article of interest to get as many details as possible.[34] Consequently, reading can be either “intensive” or “extensive.” Intensive reading requires understanding linguistic and semantic detail, whereas extensive reading is for pleasure and does not need the same focus on detail.[35]
Reading is an active process, and words express concepts. According to Wilga Rivers, words gain meaning either from their opposites, from a conceptual network of words from other languages, or from associating them with sounds, ideas, noises, colors, smells or certain events. Hence, the importance of cultural knowledge, of repetition and understanding the process of what she calls “the three R’s of vocabulary use”: Recognition, Repetition, and Retrieval. This is another reason why I constantly try to repeat, circulate, reuse and negotiate new and old vocabulary rephrased in different ways and employed in various contexts whether the activity addresses one skill or integrates different skills together.[36]
Comprehension checks of a reading text especially for beginners can include tasks like: anticipation, prediction, brainstorming, skimming, scanning, gisting, extracting specific information, guessing, clozepassages, multiple choice questions, filling out forms, making inferences, unscrambling stories, paraphrasing, identifying the main idea and supporting details, decoding of unknown words, giving a passage a title, identifying the impostor word, reorganization of a passage, and encouraging students to make dictionary use the final step in their process. Most of these functions are more productive in a group or pair activity. They can also be used for listening, writing or speaking sessions. Based on these classifications, I have developed numerous exercises that have been successfully used in class.[37]
It is also advisable to keep in mind that the level of difficulty of these exercises needs not necessarily stem from the complexity of the text itself but rather from the demand and expectation of the questions that follow. This, for example, allows me to use some intermediate level texts in my Elementary Arabic class without frustrating my students. I simply change the expectations and make the questions more general; thus, the challenging factor remains acceptable. This has allowed me to bring to class Arabic newspapers, magazines and articles which the students welcome as authentic documents showing the actual typeset, headlines, pictures, ads, etc.
For intermediate and advanced classes, reading proficiency is achieved using all authentic texts of varying degree of difficulty and genre. Students learn to read entire newspaper articles, selections from Classical and Modern Arabic poetry and prose, short stories, and articles of sociological significance. Careful selection of vocabulary upfront is not required as it is with beginning students so that intermediate and advanced students learn to feel comfortable as much as possible with the authentic texts. They learn to read much like a native speaker, who does not necessarily know every vocabulary word he encounters, but can determine its meaning in context. Early on, it is important for the instructor to determine which of his students are interested in pursuing a more in depth study of Medieval texts. Since these students tend to be in the minority, I supplement their approach to reading proficiency by teaching them how to decode a Medieval text. Since many current language programs of instruction focus on Modern Standard Arabic, students must be specifically taught to decipher Medieval texts, which are written in Classical Arabic, not Modern Standard Arabic. These students are given some Medieval texts and shown how to use a Medieval Arabic dictionary. These students tend to enjoy the analytical study of these texts and do not seem to mind the extensive use of the dictionary. This is not the case with the majority of other students. Overuse of the dictionary for them would be considered laborious and tedious and would discourage them from acquiring further proficiency in the target language.
Writing
Writing proficiency is acquired through practice at home. For the most part, important class time is not used for lengthy written exercises which are done as homework assignments, corrected, and then reviewed in class. All students are assigned daily homework and are expected to complete it since it makes up an important part of their grade. For beginning students, homework consists of exercises reinforcing the grammar and vocabulary of each new lesson. Students are also expected to write short statements and compositions on a regular basis. Their writing stems from incorporating elements from situational passages and narrative texts that have been covered in class. Extensive authentic written supplementary material as well as the textbook is used.
Intermediate and advanced students are expected to complete longer and more detailed written assignments not necessarily limiting themselves to the vocabulary in the textbook. A dictionary is useful as an aid and a resource for vocabulary at this stage. They also do extensive summarizing and gisting of articles and short stories. Both intermediate and advanced students do written research on pre-selected topics of interest. Their research is then shared orally with the other students in the classroom. Afterwards, their research papers are corrected, and students are asked to edit their work based on the corrections and resubmit it.
Writing practice occurs any time we ask the students to report back, write a letter, fill a form, take a message, present a report, describe future plans, report on vacation activities, send an invitation card, prepare a resume, etc.
Grammar is an integral part of the foreign language learning process, and although it should not be made the focal point of every instructional hour, nevertheless it should be taught and explained and the students should be made to understand the grammatical features of every lesson. Grammar should be taught inductively and in doses. Teachers should come back to previously taught grammatical features to make comparisons and give examples. Grammar rules must be explained repeatedly in order for students to acquire them. Grammar should be taught in the target language because grammatical terms need to be learned in Arabic. Students need to apply these grammatical principles through assigned written activities. Correction of grammar in written assignments is always necessary unlike speaking, whereby grammatical errors should be tolerated in the early stages. When students are doing written exercises at home, they are not necessarily on the spot and should endeavor to complete their written assignments with accuracy. The correct application of grammatical rules becomes more critical as students’ advance in proficiency. A good knowledge of grammar will assist students gain proficiency not only in writing but in listening, speaking, and, reading as well. A student will not be deemed proficient in the language at the intermediate and advanced levels unless he can speak and write grammatically correct sentences.[38]
Cultural Competency
It is generally agreed that language is an expression of culture. The cultural characteristics of any country are naturally an inherent feature of its vocabulary. Like vocabulary, culture should be introduced in context and in situations that can be described or explained at the students’ current level of linguistic competence. When teaching culture, I always remind my students that I am not necessarily asking them to accept these cultural “capsules” at face value, but simply to understand them and become aware of their implications. They can question their validity as long as they comprehend their usefulness and importance within the society that produced them. This will not only make them better citizens of the world, but it will make their lives easier if and when they visit the target country. Becoming familiar with local customs and traditions will certainly facilitate their stay, make their vacation more enjoyable or their business easier to accomplish. Above all, it will make their study of the language a more meaningful experience. Students are always fascinated with cultural anecdotes and generally welcome cultural discussions.
A Word About Testing
In a proficiency-oriented program where students are constantly exposed to language in its communicative capability, where the “comprehensible input” flows generously, and both acquisition and interaction are the main goals, it is certainly detrimental to the teaching process to limit the test to discrete grammatical items or to an achievement exercise instead of making real comprehension and proficiency the goals of the test.[39] Asking students, for example, to memorize and conjugate some verbs totally out of context with all thirteen pronouns, in both present and past tenses, or to supply the dual and the plural forms of a list of words that come from the teacher’s memory or from a dull exercise because the textbook listed it, serve no genuine educational goal. Instead, testing should have a meaningful purpose and should give an indication of the students’ ability to function with the language in a real setting. Grammatical competence can easily be measured when students are asked to produce language. When they write or respond to questions orally or in writing, the instructor can determine the students’ level and ability. Testing should also be for proficiency, and students should be asked to work with the language in a realistic and communicative way similar to situations that they may encounter in real life. As Krashen states, “Using an approach in the classroom which emphasizes the ability to exchange messages and at the same time testing only the ability to apply grammar rules correctly, is an invitation to disaster.”[40] Tests and quizzes should be fair, relevant, and comprehensive and they should give an adequate assessment of the students’ real proficiency level exposing both their linguistic and communicative competence.[41]
Selected Bibliography:
Allen, Roger. “ Teaching Arabic in the United States: Past, Present, and Future,” The Arabic Language in America, ed. Aleya Rouchdy, (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1992).
Basic Instructor Training Workshop. (Workshop materials prepared by the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center, Monterey, CA).
Krashen, Stephen D. and Tracy D. Terrell. The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1983.
Omaggio, Alice C. Teaching Language in Context: Proficiency-Oriented Instruction. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers, Inc., 1986.
Phillips, June K. “Practical Implications of Recent Research in Reading” in Foreign Language Annuals 17 (1984): 285-96.
Rivers, Wilga M. “Comprehension and Production in Interactive Language Teaching” in Modern Language Journal Vol. 70, No. 1 (Spring 1986).
Rivers, Wilga M. “Recognition, Retention, Retrieval: The Three R’s of Vocabulary Use,” Lecture presented at the Defense Language Institute, Monterey, CA 1992.
Underwood, John H. Linguistics, Computers, and the Language Teacher: A Communicative Approach. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House Publishers, 1984.
References:
[1]Stephen D. Krashen, Tracy D. Terrell, The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1983) 1.
[2]Krashen 21.
[3]Krashen 7.
[4]Basic Instructor Training Workshop (Workshop materials prepared by the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center, Monterey, CA) 7-8.
[5]Roger Allen, “ Teaching Arabic in the United States: Past, Present, and Future,” The Arabic Language in America, ed. Aleya Rouchdy, (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1992) 9.
[6]Allen. 9.
[7]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 9.
[8]John H. Underwood, Linguistics, Computers, and the Language Teacher: A Communicative Approach (Rowley, Mass: Newbury House Publishers, 1984) 19.
[9]Underwood 19.
[10]Krashen 17.
[11]Krashen 18 - 21.
[12]Krashen 17 and 1.
[13]Krashen 7.
[14]Krashen 45.
[15]Krashen 6.
[16]Krashen 18.
[17]Krashen 19-20.
[18]Krashen 18-21.
[19]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 88-89.
[20]Allen 9.
[21]Allen 9-11.
[22]Wilga Rivers, “Comprehension and Production in Interactive Language Teaching” in
Modern Language Journal Vol. 70, No. 1 (Spring 1986) 6.
[23]Krashen 35.
[24]Krashen 15.
[25]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 93.
[26]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 94.
[27]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 94-96.
[28]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 96-97.
[29]Alice C. Omaggio. Teaching Language in Context: Proficiency-Oriented Instruction. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers, Inc., 1986. 126-127.
[30]Omaggio 129-131.
[31]Omaggio 127-131.
[32]Krashen 20.
[33]Krashen 134 -135 and 140. Also, see Omaggio 121.
[34]June K. Phillips. “Practical Implications of Recent Research in Reading” in Foreign Language Annuals 17 (1984): 287.
[35]Krashen 134.
[36]Wilga Rivers, “Recognition, Retention, Retrieval: The Three R’s of Vocabulary Use,” lecture presented at the Defense Language Institute, Monterey, CA 1992.
[37]Omaggio 153-156.
[38]Krashen 30. Also, see Allen 11.
[39]Krashen 165-168.
[40]Krashen 165.
[41]Krashen 165-168.
Introduction
The goal of any successful approach to foreign language teaching is to enable the second language learner to “acquire” an overall competency in the target language. This aim requires a curriculum that integrates equally the five skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing and culture. To achieve optimal results, a well-balanced program of instruction must also be presented in a non-threatening environment that builds on a relaxed classroom atmosphere and a relationship of trust between the students and their instructor.
According to Krashen, students acquire language when they are able to understand and decode messages through listening and reading and when they receive an adequate amount of “comprehensible input.”[1] Input that is interesting, relevant and challenging but not overwhelming will prepare students to survive in an authentic environment and utilize the real world as well as the classroom for their individual progress.[2]
Since the primary function of language is communication, the target language should be the main medium of communication in the classroom and should result in maximum interaction with the students but not to the point where overall comprehension is impaired, which can lead to frustration and tension.
Some Reasons for Studying a Foreign Language Today
The acquisition of other languages as a means of communication, survival, and trade has always occurred. Yet as the needs of certain societies changed, foreign language acquisition became desirable but not critical. Consequently, the formal study of foreign languages (classroom based) is relatively a recent phenomena and poses its own set of challenges.[3] Today, people study languages for a variety of reasons[4] such as:
- To communicate with other people.
- For self-advancement and knowledge in order to grow intellectually.
- To break through cultural barriers. As we become better acquainted with other people, we become more tolerant of diversity and different lifestyles.
- To increase the individual’s ability to deal with new situations, adapt to a constant world of transition in an ever-expanding new world order and sharpen the acquisition of new learning skills.
- To enhance enjoyment and benefit during traveling for pleasure or to successfully execute business transactions.
Language should not be taught in a vacuum, and consequently, I continuously try to introduce it within its proper cultural context. It is important for the instructor to have a good understanding of why his students have chosen to study the target language. In this way, he can supplement the curriculum to satisfy the interests of his students, enhancing the learning process and resulting in a positive and enjoyable learning experience.
A Brief History of Foreign Language Teaching Methodologies and Approaches
The history of foreign language teaching has been influenced by changing psychological and socio-cultural movements and theories. As theories changed, so did methods of teaching foreign languages.[7]
Earlier methods of foreign language instruction (the grammar-translation method, the audio-lingual method, and the cognitive code method) represented a school of thought that remained primarily occupied with the form rather than the content of the message delivered to the learner, putting “accuracy before fluency,” and consequently, the results achieved remained short of producing proficient students. Thus, the push towards a new more effective approach became necessary.[8]
In the late 1980’s, a new school of thought began to gain momentum. There was a clear shift towards a communicative approach that placed “fluency before accuracy.” This approach, as John Underwood points out, was really not a single method but several all grouped together under the generic term “communicative language teaching.” On the one hand, this movement was due to the linguistic theories of Noam Chomsky and the pioneering research of second language acquisition proponents. On the other hand, it was simply the result of clear dissatisfaction with earlier approaches.[9] Chomsky’s approach remained confined to achieving linguistic and grammatical competence, focusing more on the product rather than on the process. Then came a host of linguists notable among them Hymes, Hallyday, Rivers and Savignon who took the research a step further towards communicative competence. Others such as Lozanov, Asher, and Curran developed their own communicative approaches, and although each approach had merit, yet each was also lacking in flexibility when used exclusively in the classroom.[10]
Perhaps the most comprehensive approach to foreign language instruction is that of Stephen Krashen coupled with Tracy Terrell and is called the “Natural Approach”. While not entirely new, Krashen’s approach has revolutionized the process of foreign language teaching and is easily adaptable to the classroom setting and to students of all ages. In a classroom utilizing the Natural Approach, the teacher emerges as a warm, sympathetic, bilingual coach who can provide input and make it comprehensible in a low anxiety atmosphere conducive to learning. This is my goal.[11]
Throughout my twenty-four years of experience in teaching Arabic to adult non-natives, I have applied several different approaches and have arrived at a teaching style that blends the successful elements of previous approaches into my own personal communicative method. However, in Krashen’s “Natural Approach,” I see the most affinity with and the most validation of my own personal style. Consequently, I am a strong proponent of the “Natural Approach” even though I continue to adjust and modify my style based on new personal experiences and further research.
The Natural Approach
The Natural Approach can be used to help beginners efficiently advance to the intermediate level and become better prepared to face real life situations in a functional setting. The Natural Approach is simple to use and “can be easily adapted to a variety of situations.” It can also be conveniently “modified to deal with different types of students” and “need not be adopted in whole” but can be applied in parts within a regular teaching program. The Natural Approach also incorporates other communicative methods like Lozanov’s Suggestopedia, Asher’s Total Physical Response (TPR), Curran’s Community Language Learning, and the Silent Way, etc.[12]
If we accept the premise that the main purpose of studying a foreign language is to be able to communicate and that throughout history man has learned to use languages other than his native tongue for communicating with speakers of other language groups and cultures before any use of formal grammar studies was made available, it becomes evident that the basic tenets of the Natural Approach make sense and that the teaching of grammatical rules has a significantly different emphasis.[13] I am not presenting an argument against the teaching of grammar, but I am stating that in a communicative approach, I agree with Krashen that grammar should be put in its “proper place” instead of being the focal point of the teaching hour.[14] Precious class time should be utilized to teach language, not to teach about language. To use a simple analogy, students should learn how to drive a car; they don’t need to have an elaborate understanding of how the car’s engine works (unless of course, they intend to become mechanics or to specialize in the reading of Classical texts). Without proper grammar, students cannot become proficient learners, but the instructor’s goal should remain focused on the content, the message and not the form or the rules of morphology and syntax. As Krashen explains, “the conscious understanding of grammar” is not necessarily “a prerequisite to acquiring communicative competence.”[15] “Language learning is ‘knowing the rules,’ having a conscious knowledge about grammar.”[16] Acquisition, on the other hand, is an unconscious process which takes place when students “understand messages in the target language” through the proper introduction of “comprehensible input.” This input should be interesting, relevant, and somewhat challenging. It does not necessarily have to be grammatically sequenced.[17]
For acquisition to take place, students must be receptive or to use Krashen’s terminology, the “affective filter” should be at its lowest possible level. This can be achieved by eliminating anxiety and stress, motivating and encouraging students, building self-confidence and esteem, not forcing speaking before individual students are ready, and tolerating errors without the rush to correct every utterance especially in the early stages. Consequently, the best materials suitable for the classroom will be those that supply comprehensible input, are interesting and relevant, do not force overuse of grammar, and keep the student off the defensive.[18]
The Role of the Instructor in a Communicative Setting
Gone are the days of the teacher as a drill sergeant, who has the students memorize meaningless pattern drills like a parrot. Today the language instructor is expected to be a coach, a guide, a friend, and a facilitator who establishes connections, builds bridges and instills self-confidence in each student. The teacher should be a role model, a counselor, and a partner in the learning process. As the approaches to language teaching have changed, so has the concept and the role of the teacher[19] who now strives to:
- Establish a relationship of trust and confidence with the students.
- Provide meaningful context for each activity (exercises). Go beyond the textbook to lead students to proficiency.
- Use realia, gestures, mimicry to get the message across.
- Make instruction as close to real world situations as possible by using authentic texts.
- Use personalized activities to relate instruction to each student and his/her world.
- Provide a warm, personal nonjudgmental atmosphere to elicit opinions and share experiences in order to facilitate communication.
- Be a resource to students rather than a source. Be a motivator, a conductor, a cheerleader, a facilitator, and a coach.
- Remain competent, well-prepared and organized. Constantly strive for self-improvement and knowledge.
- Ensure that the target language dominates the classroom through teacher talk, interlanguage, music, etc.
- Help students become independent and resourceful learners.
- Be willing to give up territory yet remain able to manage class time effectively. Introduce relevant material and vary the pace and type of activity. Laugh more and make the students the center of each activity.
Teaching is an interactive process. Both the teacher and the student have to be willing to give and receive and to grow together. The student also has a responsibility to:
- Come to class prepared.
- Be willing to engage in the activity and have a positive attitude.
- Be an active participant and show interest. The student does not assume the attitude that just showing up for class constitutes participation. This is as destructive as the instructor who argues, “It is your job to learn. The material is in the book. Go and study it.”
- Let the instructor know which activities are more enjoyable and more beneficial.
“A proficiency-based curriculum requires establishing goals in terms of skills and making a hierarchy of the skills in terms offunctions.”[20] Dealing with adolescent learners in a college setting and adopting a process of “limited immersion” requires the prioritization of skills and must address the limitations of time and student availability for language instruction. This problem is addressed differently in “immersion” programs such as The Defense Language Institute’s, CASA, FSI’s, and Middlebury’s, to name a few. The classroom, in spite of all of its limitations and confinement, remains a sort of substitute for the target country and the instructor remains the main native speaker available to provide comprehensible input.
In order to expand the students’ experience, the instructor must expose his students to a host of real life events and activities. The classroom should be filled with “realia” so when the student enters, he feels that he is temporarily stepping out of his daily world and entering a new and exciting cultural experience. I often play traditional Arabic background music to accustom students to the sounds they will hear in the Middle East. The music also contributes to creating a relaxed atmosphere and lowers the “affective filter” so that students are more receptive to learning. At times, the classroom moves to a Middle Eastern restaurant (New York City is especially endowed with many) so the students can enjoy the food and aromas typical in the Middle East. Students learn to acquire a taste for Middle Eastern delicacies and have the opportunity to converse in Arabic with native restaurant owners. Students also learn to order and pay for their food as they would in a typical restaurant in the Middle East. In addition, the reading of Arabic newspapers is a daily classroom activity. The introduction of movies, video clips, live radio broadcasts, and native guest speakers further serves to simulate a real world experience. The classroom should be a microcosm of real life, and it is up to the instructor to constantly find ways to enhance the students’ real world experience. In this way, the classroom becomes a catalyst, aiding in the acquisition of the five language skills.
The “real life” classroom experience can be further enhanced through the well-integrated use of technology. The most successful language schools have “smart classrooms” which enable the students to immerse themselves in a totally simulated environment. As the students interact with authentic dialogue and texts, the instructor serves as a facilitator and coach. Interactive video-disk technology (used, for example, at the Defense Language Institute) enables students to listen, speak, read, write and enjoy a cultural experience all at the same time. Satellite technology (SCOLA) now enables us to receive live television broadcasts from the Middle East. The world is more interconnected than ever, and the opportunities to be exposed to other societies have been greatly increased. Of course, the internet also significantly enhances our experiences as we can communicate with native speakers in the Middle East and can also be exposed to a multitude of media in the target language. I introduce my students to natives via the internet so that they can communicate with them regularly.
The language lab, if used properly, is another vehicle that can be a vital extension of the classroom where students can go on their own time and enhance their language skills by gaining access to tapes, videos, computers and the internet. In addition, I assign tape cassette homework activities which the student can do in the comfort of his own room. Furthermore, listening passages, vocabulary, and numerous exercises from the current textbook are also available via e-learning on the internet.
Distance learning through video conferencing is yet another means of using technology to effectively teach Arabic to students who are located on remote campuses that do not have a formal Arabic program. This technology enables an instructor to teach two or more campuses simultaneously with students instantly receiving the same instruction. This was one way I was able to teach Arabic to students who were located on two different SUNY campuses. For the most part, however, distance learning is not yet being used effectively in traditional brick and mortar universities. This is due to lack of facilities, funding or training on the part of instructors. However, with e-learning becoming increasingly popular, this helps to bridge the gap especially as collaborative e-learning courses are developed and deployed.
The Textbook vs Authentic Material
Most academic Arabic programs have relied on an established textbook as a standard for setting up the curriculum, thus allowing the textbook, and in particular its grammatical features, to become the heart of the syllabus. On the other hand, proficiency-based instruction is not sequenced according to a preset textbook. Its goal is to prepare students for real life situations and to prompt them through a series of language activities to function in the target country alongside native speakers, educated and otherwise. Proficiency relies on an evolving course syllabus which is not fixed nor dependent upon a textbook. Hence, the instructor needs to perpetually select and prepare materials based on situations, current events and the evolving level and interest of the class.[21]
Elementary and even intermediate students are more comfortable with a pre-designed curriculum utilizing a well-selected textbook. Such a textbook should form the basic outline for the course and supply continuity and structure. It is the instructor’s responsibility to enrich and supplement the book with outside materials that enhance instruction and make the students’ exposure to the language richer and more meaningful. However, as the students progress towards proficiency and build more confidence, a less rigid structure should be adopted especially in more advanced levels where both teacher and students can partake in designing the features of a more fluid and evolving curriculum based entirely on proficiency and communicative guidelines. In this case, a textbook is no longer required and the emphasis should be totally on authentic texts.
The use of authentic material in language instruction is imperative and should be utilized whenever possible and at the outset of instruction. In this way, students will become accustomed to actual conversations and to genuine texts. However, it is critical that the instructor carefully select the appropriate material, slightly modify it if necessary, and incorporate it into the program of instruction at the appropriate level. Introducing students to controlled and guided activities such as short segments of recorded broadcasts (commercials, news headlines, brief announcements and songs, and live interviews with native speakers on familiar or personal topics) seem best for students at the lower proficiency level, while intermediate and advanced classes will be more apt to handle more difficult and longer segments on a variety of topics. Of course, today with the tremendous amount of information that can be downloaded and printed from the internet, the job of selecting suitable material has been made easier. In addition, the internet allows students to directly access any information from target web sites that have been pre-selected by the instructor. To facilitate my students access to the tremendous wealth of materials on the internet, I have created a personal web site for my students which includes a wide variety of links about the Middle East where they can, among other things, read the daily and weekly newspapers and magazines, listen to live news broadcasts and music, download a dictionary and search for any book of their choice. The possibilities today are unlimited, and if we cannot take our students to the target country, we can certainly try to bring a genuine sample and flavor of the latter to the classroom through mediums that were unavailable a decade or so ago.
The Importance of Small Group Activity
In any activity performed in the classroom, it is important that the instructor have a precise purpose and well-prepared material. The students should receive clear instructions as to what they are supposed to do and what is expected of them.
“An interactive approach requires a high degree of indirect leadership and emotional maturity” on the part of the teacher. Whatever increases student participation is essential to successful language learning. The students’ interaction may be “quiet” or it may be “noisy.” The teacher’s tolerance for some movement and noise as well as his willingness to give up territory and share the floor with the students are important factors to the success of group work. Such are “classes where real learning is taking place, where students are comprehending, communicating, creating language that is meaningful in an atmosphere of trust and confidence” that enhances the student’s self image, respect and excitement.[22]
It is also important that interaction take place not only between teacher and learner, but also among learners themselves. This is known as “interlanguage.”[23] During small group activities, the instructor acts only as a facilitator attending to the needs of the students by going around and listening to the interactional participation, joining in only if invited to do so. While doing this, the instructor must refrain from direct corrections and from interrupting the students to point out grammatical errors. It is advisable to take notes of such errors and discuss them with the class after the activity is completed or during the last ten minutes of class time. Some teachers discourage "interlanguage," believing that students would be exposed to incorrect speech and learn the wrong pronunciation or grammar. I feel that this actually deprives students from invaluable opportunities. Research has shown that habit formation does not occur instantaneously and that the advantage of such practices, by far, outweigh the disadvantages. I can testify to this from personal experience.[24]
In real life, communication occurs not in a monologue but in a dialogue or in a conversational setting. Consequently, the application of small group interaction contributes to the creation of a more authentic environment and as John Lett points out is “psychologically much more conducive to the communicative use of the target language than is the typical whole-class environment. In fact, the exclusive use of whole-class instruction in our attempt to help students develop communicative proficiency can be seen to be somewhat self-defeating.”[25]
John Lett continues to explain that small group activities facilitate the use of the target language and create situations that are more “sociolinguistically realistic.” In addition, he adds that such activities create a less threatening atmosphere of positive participation and dramatically increases the amount of time each student has to practice. Small group activity can help the teacher be more available for individual learner needs and allow the student to get more personal attention. It also affords the student more opportunity for self correction and peer learning. I agree with Lett’s assumption that if students are making more mistakes during such activities, it is certainly because they are making more responses and using the language more than they would normally do in a teacher-centered class. Within small groups, each student becomes the center, the learner and the teacher. It is the instructor’s responsibility to coach and monitor every group effectively by creating the attitude that we’re all on the same team. Furthermore, such activities foster a community atmosphere.[26] My personal experience has shown that students enjoy such activities and are willing to share their knowledge and learn from each other. I make sure to tell them that they should not be competing against each other; they should only be competing against themselves.
A critical step to take after group work has occurred is for the teacher to conduct a follow up session to ensure that the work done is both complete and correct. Students should never feel that their group work was a waste of time or unimportant or less important than an instructor-led activity. The frequency of such group activities should be gradually increased as the instructor trains the students to become more independent and resourceful learners. As for the length of each activity, it should depend on the nature of the task to be performed.[27]
There are various methods to select group members. Self-selection works sometimes where individuals know each other enough and tend to group themselves with friends whom they feel comfortable working with. For some quick activities, a teacher should randomly select a group. For other activities that demand more time and a more detailed and thorough involvement, the instructor should select the groups with other considerations in mind, such as the nature of the task, personality matching, and ability level. For these activities, the instructor should combine both weak and strong students in the same group. For some activities, it might be helpful to prepare the way with a collective brainstorming session prior to grouping. Also, setting a specific time limit is always a good idea, so students know that they must complete the activity in the designated time and not resort to simply socializing.[28]
Some Strategies to Build the Five Skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Culture
In designing exercises for my students, whether for listening, reading, writing, or speaking, I always try to keep in mind the basic objective of a given activity and develop exercises accordingly. I have created and selected a large number of such exercises and activities which I have been using in my classes. All were prepared to lead to comprehension and proficiency. My students’ input and reaction to these materials is extremely critical for me. I observe how they react to and interact with each activity and always strive to improve the design and composition of my materials. I learn from their comments as much as they learn from me. No curriculum is perfect and no exercise is complete until it meets the students’ expectations, arouses their interest and takes them a step forward towards real life communication and teaches them something new.
Teaching material should be challenging. Students should be taught to tolerate ambiguity and be willing to guess and take risks. Simple pattern exercises are not comprehensive enough to prepare the learner for a genuine interaction with the natives on the streets of Beirut, Cairo or Baghdad. Given class-time limitations and the less than semi-immersion environment that a university schedule permits, it becomes imperative to expose students to as many situations and to as much vocabulary as possible.
Any successful language program should aim at the complete and balanced integration of the five skills in a relaxed and productive atmosphere where the responsibilities and roles of both the instructor and the learner are clear and well-defined. Below are some points I have learned from personal experience and some strategies I have employed to teach the five skills.
Listening
Listening is one of the most important communication skills. Successful communication requires cooperation between a good communicator and an “active” listener. Hearing does not necessarily mean listening. Students who are learning a foreign language must be taught how to listen so that they can reap the most benefit without becoming frustrated. When exposed to the target language, students need to focus and remove all distractions. They should be told that they will not necessarily understand everything they hear and that is perfectly normal. Students should listen without worrying about rules of grammar. They should try to understand the main ideas, and with time, they will also learn important details.
Listening is difficult because the receiver usually has little or no control over the flow of speech, its speed and in many cases, the subject matter involved. In a conversation, a question and answer session, or an oral interview setting, only the experienced listener will have the ability to manipulate the course of conversation and steer it in a direction suitable to his/her level of proficiency and interest. This is why it is so critical to teach beginning language learners how to become good listeners and how to feel comfortable with native discourse. This will eliminate the shock that some students may feel when exposed to the real thing.
In real life, language is usually used on the discourse and sentence level rather than on the word level, which is the reason why we should train our students from the beginning to listen to vocabulary in context and to full sentences and relatively long passages. In other words, we
should train them to “discriminate among distinctive sounds in the target language” and retain
(not necessarily memorize ) “chunks of language of different lengths” and ask them to paraphrase in their own words what they have heard. Students should also be asked to guess meanings from context and make inferences, predictions and generalizations.[29]
Listening to information passages in areas like everyday social or survival topics is important for beginners. Once students feel comfortable and can function at the survival level, more complex and longer authentic discourse should be introduced. Students should be able to ascertain the main ideas. As listening comprehension increases through the acquisition of a more varied vocabulary, students will then begin to also learn important details. At this point, students should be exposed to unedited authentic discourse in the form of radio broadcasts, TV, plays, academic lectures, and abstract topics.
“Teacher talk,” or “comprehensible input” remains one of the most valuable sources for an authentic as well as a “simulated authentic discourse” for listening material. The instructor who knows only well the students’ proficiency level can through conversations and anecdotes supply vital doses of speech that combine both authentic and pedagogical features. Such speech can be “characterized by slower, more careful articulation,” is rich with familiar vocabulary, and can still be challenging but not overwhelming. It can also be unrehearsed or pre-planned and contain false starts, hesitations, backtracking, and redundancy. To ensure comprehension, the instructor should employ restatements, paraphrasing, gestures, and punctuate the speech with questions to the students or ask them to take notes and later paraphrase.[30]
During such activities, students’ tasks should vary. They can be expected to listen for the gist, fill in graphs, apply selective listening, do dictation, take notes, paraphrase, get the main idea and some supporting details, supply an ending to a story, guess new meanings, supply an outline to a story, respond to multiple choice questions on short exchanges, answer questions about selected listening texts, identify and describe characters in a told story or respond to specific instructions in a TPR (Total Physical Response) activity. In some task-based activities like renting a room, cashing a check, going for a job interview, negotiating buying a car, it will be useful to prepare the class by a brainstorming session of what they might have to answer, ask, or expect to hear in such situations.[31]
Speaking
Proficiency in speaking is a result of good listening. Students enjoy speaking and should be encouraged to do so. The ability to speak is rewarding to most students. However, students come to class with different past experiences in the target language. While some have had previous exposure to the target language and are eager to speak, others are being introduced to the language for the first time and are shy and uncomfortable. Unfortunately, in a university setting which has a limited amount of contact time with the students, we do not have the luxury of waiting too long for students to speak, or to use Krashen’s terms, to let “language emerge.”[32] While the more-proficient students should be encouraged to speak, the other students should be given some time (approximately two weeks) to absorb enough of the language before they are expected to speak on their own. This does not mean that the shy students should not be expected to speak at all from the beginning. On the contrary, as the instructor introduces vocabulary using visual cues and modeling, all of the students should be learning new words and participating in simple pattern drills. Once the students have learned enough vocabulary and are familiar with a basic sentence structure and some key verbs, they will then be able to participate more actively in class. Beginners will initially be able to respond with yes/no answers, next with short phrases, and eventually with short sentences.
It is important to note that the instructor must stay in touch with class dynamics at all times and must continuously strive to achieve balance. The more-proficient students should not end up dominating the class while the others feel left out. This is where small group work helps tremendously. Pairing students together with different speaking abilities will help encourage the shy students to speak in a non-threatening environment, lowering the affective filter for all. This is especially important when speaking is involved. Students should never be put on the spot or embarrassed in front of the class. They should speak freely and not worry about making mistakes, and they should be constantly encouraged and rewarded for their effort. In small groups, students will also have much more opportunity to speak, ask questions, and learn from each other than in a teacher-centered classroom. The class becomes vibrant with simultaneous conversations occurring in the target language. The teacher should be walking around listening to the students speak, encouraging them but not interfering in the flow of their speech. The teacher should not be correcting the students at this point; rather, he should be taking notes which he can then share with the entire class without calling attention to one particular person. For those students who are still hesitating to speak, the instructor can meet with them one-on-one during office hours and give them the opportunity to practice with him. The instructor should laugh and help the students feel comfortable and relaxed.
There are many techniques that can be employed to increase speaking proficiency. I always tell students to listen to themselves speak because the ear has a way of helping them correct their own mistakes. If they are good listeners to themselves, to the teacher, to their peers and to the tapes and other media at their disposal, they will become good speakers. Initially, students can be asked to speak about topics that are familiar to them (like about themselves or their family). Another technique that I use with my students is I tell them that they must interview a native speaker and then share the interview orally with the rest of the class. In this way, they learn proper questioning techniques. They then learn how to describe simple events, people and things and eventually are able to narrate. As they continuously receive more “comprehensible input,” they acquire the ability to negotiate and finally are able to speak about abstract topics.
For the most part, speaking exercises should be focused on the lessons being studied. This will help create a more level playing field where everyone is exposed to the same vocabulary. Homework assignments given the night before on a particular topic will enable all students to be prepared to participate in class the next day. In addition, at the beginning of each class the instructor can take a few minutes to discuss personal topics such as what he did last night and then using small groups, give the students each an opportunity to prepare a brief sentence or two on what they did. These responses can then be shared with the entire class.
Brainstorming is a technique that is particularly useful in building speaking proficiency and one that I use frequently. Once the instructor introduces a topic (for example, the student will be participating in a job interview), he can ask all students to brainstorm on what questions might be asked during an interview and what data is required. Students should take notes during the brainstorming session, and they can then use those notes to help them during a simulated job interview session. Advanced students also benefit from this technique although they would be dealing with more complex and abstract topics. For example, they may be discussing a work of literature and preparing a critical analysis or they may be asked to participate in a debate on topics such as the women’s liberation movement in the Middle East.
In addition, most exercises used to build listening comprehension and reading comprehension as well can be tailored to enhance speaking proficiency. I also recommend teaching a flavor of colloquial Arabic dialects (Syrian, Iraqi, Egyptian, etc.) This is important because many current Arabic programs teach Modern Standard Arabic which is the language used in the Middle East by the news media and educated writers of Arabic. It is not the language used for day-to-day conversations by native speakers in the Middle East. Colloquial dialect classes should be offered to those students who are interested in acquiring language proficiency for a specific target country. In this way, students will be able to communicate at all levels when exposed to native speakers.
Reading
Reading is the process of obtaining the necessary information from a written text. Depending on our purpose and need, we apply different techniques to a particular text in order to obtain the sought after elements of information. Looking through the ad page in the daily newspaper to buy a specific type of car, for example, is certainly different from a careful reading of a letter from the IRS or studying a modern work of literature or analyzing a Medieval text.
When reading a text, both “visual and non-visual” cues are relevant to decoding it. The reader’s knowledge of the world (schemata) and of the topic and cultural background is as important as familiarity with the linguistic code.[33] As an instructor of foreign language, it is essential for me to know why my students need to read a particular foreign text and I must be familiar with the steps which they must go through to understand it in order for me to best help them achieve their goal. According to Phillips, we usually read either for information or for pleasure even though the demarcation lines between these two reasons are not necessarily rigid. It is rather the purpose behind the reading of a certain text that determines the degree and level of comprehension required. Skimming a newspaper for headlines to get a global view of today’s news is different from reading a specific article of interest to get as many details as possible.[34] Consequently, reading can be either “intensive” or “extensive.” Intensive reading requires understanding linguistic and semantic detail, whereas extensive reading is for pleasure and does not need the same focus on detail.[35]
Reading is an active process, and words express concepts. According to Wilga Rivers, words gain meaning either from their opposites, from a conceptual network of words from other languages, or from associating them with sounds, ideas, noises, colors, smells or certain events. Hence, the importance of cultural knowledge, of repetition and understanding the process of what she calls “the three R’s of vocabulary use”: Recognition, Repetition, and Retrieval. This is another reason why I constantly try to repeat, circulate, reuse and negotiate new and old vocabulary rephrased in different ways and employed in various contexts whether the activity addresses one skill or integrates different skills together.[36]
Comprehension checks of a reading text especially for beginners can include tasks like: anticipation, prediction, brainstorming, skimming, scanning, gisting, extracting specific information, guessing, clozepassages, multiple choice questions, filling out forms, making inferences, unscrambling stories, paraphrasing, identifying the main idea and supporting details, decoding of unknown words, giving a passage a title, identifying the impostor word, reorganization of a passage, and encouraging students to make dictionary use the final step in their process. Most of these functions are more productive in a group or pair activity. They can also be used for listening, writing or speaking sessions. Based on these classifications, I have developed numerous exercises that have been successfully used in class.[37]
It is also advisable to keep in mind that the level of difficulty of these exercises needs not necessarily stem from the complexity of the text itself but rather from the demand and expectation of the questions that follow. This, for example, allows me to use some intermediate level texts in my Elementary Arabic class without frustrating my students. I simply change the expectations and make the questions more general; thus, the challenging factor remains acceptable. This has allowed me to bring to class Arabic newspapers, magazines and articles which the students welcome as authentic documents showing the actual typeset, headlines, pictures, ads, etc.
For intermediate and advanced classes, reading proficiency is achieved using all authentic texts of varying degree of difficulty and genre. Students learn to read entire newspaper articles, selections from Classical and Modern Arabic poetry and prose, short stories, and articles of sociological significance. Careful selection of vocabulary upfront is not required as it is with beginning students so that intermediate and advanced students learn to feel comfortable as much as possible with the authentic texts. They learn to read much like a native speaker, who does not necessarily know every vocabulary word he encounters, but can determine its meaning in context. Early on, it is important for the instructor to determine which of his students are interested in pursuing a more in depth study of Medieval texts. Since these students tend to be in the minority, I supplement their approach to reading proficiency by teaching them how to decode a Medieval text. Since many current language programs of instruction focus on Modern Standard Arabic, students must be specifically taught to decipher Medieval texts, which are written in Classical Arabic, not Modern Standard Arabic. These students are given some Medieval texts and shown how to use a Medieval Arabic dictionary. These students tend to enjoy the analytical study of these texts and do not seem to mind the extensive use of the dictionary. This is not the case with the majority of other students. Overuse of the dictionary for them would be considered laborious and tedious and would discourage them from acquiring further proficiency in the target language.
Writing
Writing proficiency is acquired through practice at home. For the most part, important class time is not used for lengthy written exercises which are done as homework assignments, corrected, and then reviewed in class. All students are assigned daily homework and are expected to complete it since it makes up an important part of their grade. For beginning students, homework consists of exercises reinforcing the grammar and vocabulary of each new lesson. Students are also expected to write short statements and compositions on a regular basis. Their writing stems from incorporating elements from situational passages and narrative texts that have been covered in class. Extensive authentic written supplementary material as well as the textbook is used.
Intermediate and advanced students are expected to complete longer and more detailed written assignments not necessarily limiting themselves to the vocabulary in the textbook. A dictionary is useful as an aid and a resource for vocabulary at this stage. They also do extensive summarizing and gisting of articles and short stories. Both intermediate and advanced students do written research on pre-selected topics of interest. Their research is then shared orally with the other students in the classroom. Afterwards, their research papers are corrected, and students are asked to edit their work based on the corrections and resubmit it.
Writing practice occurs any time we ask the students to report back, write a letter, fill a form, take a message, present a report, describe future plans, report on vacation activities, send an invitation card, prepare a resume, etc.
Grammar is an integral part of the foreign language learning process, and although it should not be made the focal point of every instructional hour, nevertheless it should be taught and explained and the students should be made to understand the grammatical features of every lesson. Grammar should be taught inductively and in doses. Teachers should come back to previously taught grammatical features to make comparisons and give examples. Grammar rules must be explained repeatedly in order for students to acquire them. Grammar should be taught in the target language because grammatical terms need to be learned in Arabic. Students need to apply these grammatical principles through assigned written activities. Correction of grammar in written assignments is always necessary unlike speaking, whereby grammatical errors should be tolerated in the early stages. When students are doing written exercises at home, they are not necessarily on the spot and should endeavor to complete their written assignments with accuracy. The correct application of grammatical rules becomes more critical as students’ advance in proficiency. A good knowledge of grammar will assist students gain proficiency not only in writing but in listening, speaking, and, reading as well. A student will not be deemed proficient in the language at the intermediate and advanced levels unless he can speak and write grammatically correct sentences.[38]
Cultural Competency
It is generally agreed that language is an expression of culture. The cultural characteristics of any country are naturally an inherent feature of its vocabulary. Like vocabulary, culture should be introduced in context and in situations that can be described or explained at the students’ current level of linguistic competence. When teaching culture, I always remind my students that I am not necessarily asking them to accept these cultural “capsules” at face value, but simply to understand them and become aware of their implications. They can question their validity as long as they comprehend their usefulness and importance within the society that produced them. This will not only make them better citizens of the world, but it will make their lives easier if and when they visit the target country. Becoming familiar with local customs and traditions will certainly facilitate their stay, make their vacation more enjoyable or their business easier to accomplish. Above all, it will make their study of the language a more meaningful experience. Students are always fascinated with cultural anecdotes and generally welcome cultural discussions.
A Word About Testing
In a proficiency-oriented program where students are constantly exposed to language in its communicative capability, where the “comprehensible input” flows generously, and both acquisition and interaction are the main goals, it is certainly detrimental to the teaching process to limit the test to discrete grammatical items or to an achievement exercise instead of making real comprehension and proficiency the goals of the test.[39] Asking students, for example, to memorize and conjugate some verbs totally out of context with all thirteen pronouns, in both present and past tenses, or to supply the dual and the plural forms of a list of words that come from the teacher’s memory or from a dull exercise because the textbook listed it, serve no genuine educational goal. Instead, testing should have a meaningful purpose and should give an indication of the students’ ability to function with the language in a real setting. Grammatical competence can easily be measured when students are asked to produce language. When they write or respond to questions orally or in writing, the instructor can determine the students’ level and ability. Testing should also be for proficiency, and students should be asked to work with the language in a realistic and communicative way similar to situations that they may encounter in real life. As Krashen states, “Using an approach in the classroom which emphasizes the ability to exchange messages and at the same time testing only the ability to apply grammar rules correctly, is an invitation to disaster.”[40] Tests and quizzes should be fair, relevant, and comprehensive and they should give an adequate assessment of the students’ real proficiency level exposing both their linguistic and communicative competence.[41]
Selected Bibliography:
Allen, Roger. “ Teaching Arabic in the United States: Past, Present, and Future,” The Arabic Language in America, ed. Aleya Rouchdy, (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1992).
Basic Instructor Training Workshop. (Workshop materials prepared by the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center, Monterey, CA).
Krashen, Stephen D. and Tracy D. Terrell. The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1983.
Omaggio, Alice C. Teaching Language in Context: Proficiency-Oriented Instruction. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers, Inc., 1986.
Phillips, June K. “Practical Implications of Recent Research in Reading” in Foreign Language Annuals 17 (1984): 285-96.
Rivers, Wilga M. “Comprehension and Production in Interactive Language Teaching” in Modern Language Journal Vol. 70, No. 1 (Spring 1986).
Rivers, Wilga M. “Recognition, Retention, Retrieval: The Three R’s of Vocabulary Use,” Lecture presented at the Defense Language Institute, Monterey, CA 1992.
Underwood, John H. Linguistics, Computers, and the Language Teacher: A Communicative Approach. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House Publishers, 1984.
References:
[1]Stephen D. Krashen, Tracy D. Terrell, The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1983) 1.
[2]Krashen 21.
[3]Krashen 7.
[4]Basic Instructor Training Workshop (Workshop materials prepared by the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center, Monterey, CA) 7-8.
[5]Roger Allen, “ Teaching Arabic in the United States: Past, Present, and Future,” The Arabic Language in America, ed. Aleya Rouchdy, (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1992) 9.
[6]Allen. 9.
[7]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 9.
[8]John H. Underwood, Linguistics, Computers, and the Language Teacher: A Communicative Approach (Rowley, Mass: Newbury House Publishers, 1984) 19.
[9]Underwood 19.
[10]Krashen 17.
[11]Krashen 18 - 21.
[12]Krashen 17 and 1.
[13]Krashen 7.
[14]Krashen 45.
[15]Krashen 6.
[16]Krashen 18.
[17]Krashen 19-20.
[18]Krashen 18-21.
[19]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 88-89.
[20]Allen 9.
[21]Allen 9-11.
[22]Wilga Rivers, “Comprehension and Production in Interactive Language Teaching” in
Modern Language Journal Vol. 70, No. 1 (Spring 1986) 6.
[23]Krashen 35.
[24]Krashen 15.
[25]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 93.
[26]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 94.
[27]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 94-96.
[28]Basic Instructor Training Workshop 96-97.
[29]Alice C. Omaggio. Teaching Language in Context: Proficiency-Oriented Instruction. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers, Inc., 1986. 126-127.
[30]Omaggio 129-131.
[31]Omaggio 127-131.
[32]Krashen 20.
[33]Krashen 134 -135 and 140. Also, see Omaggio 121.
[34]June K. Phillips. “Practical Implications of Recent Research in Reading” in Foreign Language Annuals 17 (1984): 287.
[35]Krashen 134.
[36]Wilga Rivers, “Recognition, Retention, Retrieval: The Three R’s of Vocabulary Use,” lecture presented at the Defense Language Institute, Monterey, CA 1992.
[37]Omaggio 153-156.
[38]Krashen 30. Also, see Allen 11.
[39]Krashen 165-168.
[40]Krashen 165.
[41]Krashen 165-168.
